Thinking is the mental activity that is involved in the understanding, processing, and communicating of information. Thinking is made possible by the use of symbols, concepts, and prototypes. Symbols are an object or an act that stands for something else. Concepts to mentally group together objects, events, or ideas that have similar characteristics. Prototypes is an example of a concept that best exemplifies that concept.


In many cases, people do not go straight from a problem to its solution in a series of steps. Algorithms is an specific procedure that, when used properly and in the right circumstances, will always lead to the solution of a problem. An example of algorithms are formulas. Heuristics are rules of thumb that often, but not always, help us find the solution to a problem, meaning that they are shorcuts.  There are multiple problem solving methods such as trial and error, difference reduction in which we identify our goal, where achieve that goal. Means-end analysis, we know that certain things we can do will have certain results.  Working backward this method is particularly useful when we know what we want to accomplish but are not sure how best to begin. Analogies that are similarities between two or more items, events, situations. Insights and Incubation is making connections that something that might have happened to you and incubation is taking a break after doing a very long problems to see if when your break has ended you have new approaches. Mental set is the tendency to respond to a new problem with an approach that was successfully used with similar problems. Functional fixedness is the tendency to think of an object as being useful only for the function that the object is usually used for. Functional fitness can be overcomed with creativity. Creativity requires divergent thinking rather that convergent thinking. In convergent thinking thought is limited to available facts. One tries to narrow one´s thinking to find the single best solution. Divergent thinking is when one associates more freely to the various elements of a problem. Some psychologists advise to use the ABDCE of problem solving  which are Assess the problem that means examining its parts and making sure that you understand it, Brainstorm approaches to the problem is the free spontaneous production of possible approaches or solution to a problem, Choose the approach that seems most likely to work after brainstorming the person must choose which approach to take and which course of action to follow, Do it- try most likely approach that is to do the problem, by trying out the approach, Evaluate the results that is to see if the goal was achieved.

Reasoning is the use of information to reach conclusions. There are two main types of reasoning: deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning when the conclusion is true if the premises are true. A permise is an idea or statement that provides the basic information that allows us to draw conclusions, an example of deductive reasoning is that South Korea is in Asia. Inductive reasoning on the other hand, we reason from individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion. An example of this can be that Spain and Portugal are near each other, and they have similar languages. To prove, or confirm a hypothesis rather disprove them is a confirmation bias. 

The basic elements of language are phonemes, morphemes, syntax  and semantics. Phonemes are basic sounds of a language. Morphemes are the units of meaning in a language. This are made of phonemes. Syntax is the way in which words are arranged to make phrases and sentences. English syntax usually follows the pattern of subject, verb, and object of the verb. Semantics is the study of meaning. There are stages of language development. Crying, cooing and babbling is the first stage. After this comes wording when we start true language. Then development of grammar. We learn language by hereditary influences meaning that people have a natural tendency to acquire language and environmental influences that are teachings that come from our surroundings.

Thinking and language are very extensive and interesting topics. There are various stages for both of them. By thinking we usually use reasoning. And as we grow old we learn how to extend our language or even better, learn others!

Chapter 7. Memory

Memory is the process by which we recollect prior experiences, information and skills learn in the past. There are three kinds of memory: episodic memory, semantic memory and implicit memory. There are also three processes of memory:encoding, storage and retrieval. Memory has three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

Episodic memory is a memory of a specific event. Some examples of episodic memory are the dinner you had last night and your last quiz. Sometimes memories are so important to us that we make them flashbulb memories, that is like if we took pictures in our head. Semantic memory is general knowledge people remember. For example we remember that Mel Zelaya was president before Pepe Lobo. Episodic and semantic memories are bot examples of explicit memory. Memories that are explicit are clear, or clearly stated or explained. Implicit memory are things that are implied or not clearly stated. This consists of the skills or procedures we have learned. For example throwing a ball, riding a bicycle, skipping rope or swimming.

Encoding is the first process of memory. This is the translation of information and a form in which it can be stored. Visual codes make images in our minds. Acoustic codes find the sense of things. Storage is the second process of memory, and it is the maintanence of encoded information over a period of time. Maintenance rehearsal is repeating information over and over again. Elaborative rehearsal are things we already know and organized systems are stored memories becoming organized. Retrieval is locationg stored information and returning it to conscious thoughts. Context-depending memories are memories that come back, and state-dependent memories is remembering every detail.

Sensory memory is the first stage of memory. It consists of the immediate, initial recording of information that enters through our senses. Short-term memory or algo known as working memory. Long-term memory is the third and final stage of memory. We can learn using schemas that are mental representations that we form of the world organizing bits of information into our knowledge.

We have many basic memory tasks. Recognition is one which involves identifying objects or events that have been encountered before. Recall is the second memory task which is to bring something back into your mind. And relearning is to learn things we were taught in the past again.

Memory is a very detailed process. Sometimes we think is just learning and remembering. But it takes more than just that. We use memory in every second of our lifes and we must understand how it works.

Operant Conditioning.

In an operant conditioning, people and animals learn to do certain things and not to do others because of the results of what they do. Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the chances that the preceding behavior will occur again. In operant conditioning, it matters little why the person or animal makes the first response that is reinforced. People can simply be told what they are learning or how to do things. There are negative and positive reinforcers. Positive reinforces increase the frequency of the behavior they follow when they are applied. Food, fun activities, and social approval can be examples of this. Negative reinforcers increase the frequency of the behaviour that follows when they are removed. Discomfort, fear, and social disapproval are some examples of negative reinforcers. Also primary and secondary reinforcers. Primary reinforces are reinforcers that work due to biological makeup of an organism and secondary reinforcers acquire their value through being paired with established reinforcers. A schedule of reinforcement is how often the reinforcement occurs and a continuous reinforcement is every time the reinforcement occurs. And parcial reinforcement  is a behavior that is not reinforced every time it occurs. Teachers and students usually use the ¨time-out¨method to discourage the child`s or person`s miss behavior. Shaping is a way of teaching complex behaviors in which one first reinforces small steps in the right direction, for example learning to ride a bicycle involves learning of complex sequence of behaviors that are accomplished through shaping.

Chapter 6. Cognitive Factors in Learning

Cognitive psychologists see learning in a purposeful way, not in a mechanical way. They believe that people can learn by thinking and looking at other people. Remembering how to get to one place involves a cognitive map, for example you can think of any object in your house like your bed. When someone asks you where it is, you can easily answer by imagining your bedroom or your house. E.C. Tholman did an experiment with rats and concluded that rats had learned even if they were unrewarded. Latent learning is learning that remains hidden until it is needed and observational learning is learning by observing and imitating others behavior which are two kind of learning that involve cognitive factors. Victorious reinforcement is a psychological behavior, which most people do without realizing it. Like children, they learn to eat, drink, speak etc... by looking at their parents or someone else. Modern advertising uses elements of social learning. Kids usually watch murders and acts of violence, that change their way of thinking, in this case in a negative way.

Chapter 5. Consciousness

Consciousness is a psychological construct; the word itself means ¨awareness¨. There are three levels of consciousness, such as preconscious, unconscious and non conscious. In this essay I will talk about sleep and dreams; specially their stages. Meditation, hypnosis, biofeedback. And drugs such as depressants, hallucinogens and stimulants.

There are three levels of consciousness, preconscious level is when our ideas are not organised therefor they are not clearly seen, but we can still become aware of them. Then we have the unconscious level or subconscious level that is when we are not aware at all. And then mi have the nonconscious level that is when we do things without thinking. Most of the time we know what we are doing, many of these things were not taught to us, things such as breathing, heart beating, nail growing and more. 

Sleep has stages which are seen in brain-wave patterns measured in electroencephalograph. Stage 1 is the stage with less sleep, brain waves slow down until they reach the slower pattern of the theta waves. This stage lasts about 30-40 minutes if we are not awakened during this time. Then we go through stages 2, 3, 4. Sleep becomes deeper; while we sleep we breathe more irregularly, blood pressure rises and the heart beats faster. After all these four stages we move to REM sleep or rapid-eye-movement stage is where we have our most dreams. Sleep is very important because we relax our tired body, build resistance to infection, recover form stress and many other things. Lucid dreaming is when we are dreaming but we see something strange, usually out of reality and then we know we are just dreaming.

Also people can manage to wake up during lucid dreaming; during this we are conscious that we are just dreaming.

Meditation is a method some people use to try to narrow their consciousness so that the stresses of the outside world fade away. Meditation focuses on peaceful, repetitive stimulus. Biofeedback is a system that provides, or ¨feeds back,¨ about something happening in the body. During this training people learn how to control some body functions, such as heart beat. This should be done only with the supervision of a medical professional. Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness during which people respond to suggestions and behave as though they are in trance. This process should be done by an specialized person. According to Freud when people are hypnotized they allow themselves to turn into a childish behavior. Fantasy is before fact and logic. According to other ideas people that are hypnotized are in a play where they can be easily manipulated and look like if what they are doing is real. 

Drugs are something us as adolescence live with everyday. Nowadays they are very commonly used. Our environment is full of them; even if we do not notice them. Some people take them without knowing that they are or not being aware of might happen to them and get somehow addicted. Addiction to a drug is when after a person has taken a drug and their body asks them for more to feel good. Depressants also known as ¨downers, opaites and downers¨ are also drugs that slow the activity of the nervous system. The most common examples of depressants are alcohol and narcotics. Depressants are addictive. Stimulants or ¨ uppers¨ increase the nervous system activity. They speed up the heart and breathing rates. Some examples of stimulants are cocaine, nicotine and amphetamines; this are addictive. Hallucinogens also known as psychodelics are drugs that produce hallucinations, that can cause relaxation or feeling of pleasure. Marihuana and LSD are some example of hallucinogens. This are not addictive.

In conclusion, consciousness may vary. Depending on the person and the circumstances where they are in. This is something similar to sleeping and dreams which we can learn to identify and control them such as lucid dreaming. Hypnosis, meditation and biofeedbacks are ways to manage our environment usually used to relax or feel free of reality problems. This things have to be done by specialized people. Also some drugs such as depressants and stimulants are addictive and others such as hallucinogens are not. Still many drugs are used for medicinal purposes but most of them are used for recreational purposes; therefor the mayority of them are not legalized. 

Chapter 2

Gay Acceptance Survey!

1.) Can people deal with gay persons? My two variables are religion and nationality.

2.)Very religious people won´t accept gay people because it is against their beliefs and people from different nationalities will think different because some countries are more liberal than others.

3.)My target population was teenagers between 14-21 years.

4.)I chose to apply this survey to random people to see the point of view of different ages people.

5.)I tested my hypothesis by giving a survey to random people so I could see the differences in my results. My survey questions were very easy. I asked people their gender, age, if they accepted the legalization of gay marriage in their countries?, do they have gay people in their family?, if they know someone who is gay?, do the feel comfortable when they see or when they are with gay people?, do they think being gay is normal or right, and their relation and if they are very devoted to it because that can be a variable that can change a lot my results.

5.)In conclusion, religion does matter at the moment when we ask about gay acceptance, since I live in a Christian country and most of the people who did the survey is Christian, their teachings are very important and they do not accept this type of people because it is not what their religion has teaches them to believe. Also nationality affected a lot, because some people who did the survey are from another countries and many other countries are more liberal with their points of view focusing on gay people. For other countries it is very normal to see this persons and just deal with them in their daily lives. But since the majority of the people who did this survey are latins, our points of view are different. Here it is less normal to see this people.

6.)If I got to do this survey again I would take in consideration that if people knows that can cause a person to turn gay.

7.) Have you lived in more than one country?

8.) Generally gay people are not accepted, and if they are not accepted obviously the legalization of their marriage won´t be either. New generations care less about this types of people because we have grown with this ideas, and as time passes by there are more and more people who become that way. Since we are kids we are taught about them, since they are so much it is not possible not to see them. Also as time passes by religion loses it´s power and people pay less attention to it´s rules and just do whatever they want or think is right.

Chapter 1. Introduction To Psychology.

             Psychology is the study of the mind. Psychology started because people began to be interested in human behavior. Like why do we act a certain way or do things and our thoughts.

             Many roots of psychology come from Ancient Greece, more than 2,000 years ago. During this Socrates said that we could learn about ourselves by studying our thoughts and feelings. Psychologists named this way of thinking introspection which means looking within. Ancient greeks made various theories about psychological disorders such as confusion and bizarre behavior.

             Since psychology has began there have been many psychologist, each of them with their different idea. Functionalism is one of them; this psychologists were concerned with how mental processes help organisms adapt to their environment. Structuralism in which structuralists were concerned with discovering the basic elements of consciousness. Behaviorism is that we learn by  positive reinforcement. The Gestault psychology which means "shapre" or "form" in German. This is based on the idea that perceptions are more than the sums of their parts, instead they are wholes that give shape, or meaning to the parts. This rejects the idea that experience can be broken down. And the school of Psychoanalysis  that emphazises the importance of unconscious motives and internal conflicts in determining human behavior. Psychodynamic thinking assumed that most of what exists in an individual's mind is unconscious and consists of conflicting impulses, urges, and wishes.

            There are many perspectives in psycholgy. Biological Perspective is one of them; this perspective emphazises the influence of biology in our behavior. This perspective states that our thoughts, fantasies and dreams are controlled by our nervous system. Evolutionary Perspective focuses on the evolution of behavior and mental processes. The Cognitive Perspective emphasizes the role that thoughts play in a certain behavior. This perspective studies the mental processes to understand human nature. Cognitive psychologists investigate the ways in which people perceive information. Humanistic Perspective stresses the human capacity for self-fulftillment and the importance of consciousness, self-awareness and the capacity to make choices. The Psychoanalytic Perspective studies the influence of unconscious forces on human behavior. Social-learning theory suggests that people can change thei environment and create new ones. Sociocultural Perspective studies the influences of ethnicity,gender, culture and socioeconomic status on behavior and mental processes. And there are many other perspectives.

            Psychology is very intersting, it is the study of the mind. Cognitive Perspective is the best. If I got the opportunitiy of being a psychologist I would be a cognitive psychologist. I would choose this because it is very interesting and fun to see how our thoughts influence our behavior.